As reported in previous newsletters, twelve of the fourteen springs at Levi Springs, on the Peake Pastoral Lease, were fenced by FOMS volunteers in July 2019. About 2.3km of fencing was erected and FOMS has revisited Levi Springs each year since then to ensure the fencing remains in good condition. FOMS also established a series of photopoints to monitor vegetation condition and these have been repeated each year.

FOMS volunteers visited Levi Springs as part of the June 2022 working bee. The fencing remained in good condition and it is worth noting that, in the initial construction of the fence, care was taken to ensure good separation between the fence and the springs.

Experience elsewhere has shown that fencing in the immediate vicinity of springs – such as across spring tails – can lead to significant pressure by cattle upon the fence and occasionally intrusion of cattle through the fence.

As illustrated in the accompanying photographs, spring vegetation has responded strongly following the fencing. Equally noteworthy is the regrowth of associated dryland vegetation – also noticeable in the photos – reflecting both the exclusion of grazing pressure and the good rains in recent times.

At Strangways Springs and Freeling Springs (the site of the Peake Overland Telegraph (OT) ruins) the Arabana Rangers and FOMS volunteers maintained walking trails established by FOMS in 2011. A bench seat was also installed on one of the walks at Strangways in memory of late FOMS helper Bill Giles and new bollards were installed at the Peake OT carpark to manage vehicle movement.

The protection of priority mound springs from disturbance by stock and feral animals has been an important objective and the most recent success story has been the fencing of Levi Springs, on the Peake pastoral lease, by FOMS in 2019 – in consultation with the Arabana Aboriginal Corporation, the Department for Environment and Water, Arid Lands NRM Board and lessees Williams Cattle Company. In the June 2021 working bee, FOMS and the Arabana Rangers applied some finishing touches to the 2.3km of fencing and carried out vegetation monitoring at a number of photo- points established in 2019. The spring vegetation has recovered strongly following stock exclusion.

FOMS and the Arabana Rangers also combined forces to check a number of springs fenced by the State Environment agency in the 1980s on the Peake and Nilpinna pastoral leases. Minor fence maintenance and vegetation monitoring were undertaken. The contrast between protected springs and nearby unprotected spring wetlands is quite marked. The common reed, Phragmites, continues to be dominant in most of the protected springs although there are early signs that this dominance is diminishing after 30 plus years of stock exclusion.

The June 2021 springs working bee is a very good example of a productive collaboration aimed at improved conservation of mound springs – involving a mixture of research, monitoring and on- ground protective works. FOMS has appreciated the ongoing support of the SA Arid Lands Landscape Board and the Department for Environment and Water and it has been a privilege to be closely associated with the Arabana Ranger Program.

The Friends of Mound Springs (FOMS) group has a long-standing interest in the springs occurring north-east of Lyndhurst on the Moolawatana and Murnpeowie pastoral leases. These springs are described as being within the Lake Frome spring supergroup. (There are thirteen supergroups described across the Great Artesian Basin, with three of those in South Australia: Lake Frome, Lake Eyre and Dalhousie.) FOMS’ interest centres on the occurrence of significant vegetation, such as the endangered salt pipewort Eriocaulon carsonii, and the recent scientific studies that have shown that many of the springs are associated with aquifers other than the Great Artesian Basin (GAB). Historically, the springs have been described simply as GAB springs. However, recent hydrochemical studies (Keppel et al., 2016) have shown that, while Twelve Springs are apparently sourced entirely from the GAB, the other springs (Mulligan, Petermorra, Public House and Reedy) are sourced from a mixture of GAB waters and other aquifers. Four other aquifers – in addition to the GAB – are described for the area occupied by the springs.

After consulting the lessees of Moolawatana and Murnpeowie, FOMS conducted its first visit to these springs from 28 July to 3 August 2020. Planning for the trip was also assisted greatly through advice from Darren Niejalke, FOMS member and experienced springs researcher who had previously undertaken surveys of these springs. Participants on this trip were: Colin Harris, Bruce and Sherrie Gotch, Bren and Bis Lay, Brian Donaghy and Iris Iwanicki, Duncan and Caryl Ross-Watt, Bernice Cohen, Rick Moore, Stafford Dow, Chris Wenham and Simon Lewis. Duncan and Caryl made the long journey from Brisbane to be with the group.

Participants made their way by various routes to convene at Balcanoona – headquarters for the Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park – for the first night. Some bedded down in the Shearers’ Quarters while others camped nearby.

Over the ensuing four days, the group inspected a range of fascinating springs on the Moolawatana and Murnpeowie pastoral leases. There were many highlights as described below.

Mulligan Springs, 29th & 30th July

Mulligan Springs comprise a group of about thirty active spring vents on the western shores of Lake Callabonna. Nearby is the Lake Callabonna Fossil Reserve, where Diprotodon fossils were found in the late 19^th century by the South Australian Museum.

The FOMS group inspected a good range of springs right on the lake shore. These included a cluster of bulrush (Typha) springs with, cumulatively, a reasonable overflow into Lake Callabonna. Not far to the south were particularly interesting mud mounds, a spring formation only recorded at one other location in South Australia (Dalhousie) and with some similarities to mud mounds near Eulo, seen by the FOMS group that travelled to Queensland in 2012. The springs were generally in good condition.

The Mulligan Springs group also includes a number of springs one or two kilometres west of Lake Callabonna, in the vicinity of old yards formerly used for mustering of horses. At least one of these springs is dominated by reeds, Phragmites – in some contrast to the Typha springs occurring closer to the lake.

Terrapinna Springs, 30th July

Having completed observations at Mulligan Springs, the group camped at Terrapinna Springs. Terrapinna Springs are not considered to be fed by groundwater but by surface water run-off. Associated walking trails, installed by the Walking Trails Support Group, provide spectacular views of the local area.

Twelve Springs 31st July

Twelve Springs, also on Moolawatana pastoral lease, have been of longstanding interest to FOMS because of the presence of the endangered plant, salt pipewort, Eriocaulon carsonii, that occurs in an extremely limited range of springs across the Great Artesian Basin. Also at the springs is one of the bladderworts, the recently described Utricularia fenshami, a carnivorous plant that captures small organisms by means of a bladder-like trap.

The main group of springs at Twelve Springs comprises an area of low, interconnected mounds with bore-drain sedge, Cyperus laevigatus as by far the most predominant vegetation. Eriocaulon carsonii was largely restricted to two slightly more elevated mounds where reeds (Phragmites) were growing at the main vent. There, the Eriocaulon formed dense mats in a halo immediately surrounding the Phragmites. The FOMS group also noted other more isolated springs in the immediate vicinity. Twelve Springs is recorded as having 72 spring vents. The springs were showing significant impacts from donkeys.

Following the morning inspection of Twelve Springs, the FOMS group headed north, leaving Moolawatana and entering – via the Dog Fence – Murnpeowie pastoral lease. Here the track definition to springs was a little more problematic but the group eventually located Petermorra Springs and then Public House Springs.

Petermorra Springs 31^st July

Petermorra Springs comprise a number of vents in a drainage line. These are described as Erosional Channel Springs, a type of spring formation not found in springs in the Lake Eyre springs supergroup. Erosional Channel Springs occur in drainage lines where overlying sediments and confining layers have been eroded, allowing groundwater (spring) discharge to occur. All had been heavily impacted by cattle. Several carcasses were noted where cattle had become bogged at springs.

The spring vegetation at Petermorra largely comprised bore-drain sedge, Cyperus laevigatus. The endangered salt pipewort, Eriocaulon carsonii, was noted on one low spring mound.

Public House Springs 31st July

Public House Springs are also described as predominantly Erosional Channel springs and are fed by the GAB and other aquifers. They occur in drainage lines of the Petermorra Creek and can therefore be subject to flooding impacts (Keppel et al., 2016). There is an extensive array of more than two hundred spring vents. Although showing some impacts from cattle, these springs were in significantly better condition than those seen at Petermorra. This could reflect two aspects: the easier access for cattle at Petermorra and the much more extensive array of springs at Public House, meaning less concentrated stock impacts. The predominant spring vegetation was again bore- drain sedge, Cyperus laevigatus but many mounds contained mats of Eriocaulon carsonii. The mound spring bladderwort, Utricularia fenshami has also been recorded. The springs are described as having high floristic diversity but low macroinvertebrate diversity.

The FOMS group’s time at Public House Springs was somewhat limited: all agreed that a more thorough survey would be of much interest.

Reedy Springs 1st August

On Saturday 1^st August, the FOMS group drove north to join the Strzelecki Track, then on to Reedy Springs, still on Murnpeowie and just north-west of the ruins at Blanchewater.

Reedy Springs comprise more than three hundred spring vents, consisting of Sand Mounds and Erosional Channel Springs. The springs are thought to be fed by a mixture of GAB water and another aquifer (Cenozoic). A feature at Reedy Springs is an enormous sand mound several hundred metres in diameter. While some upper sections of the mound have dried out, much of it comprises active wetlands with Cyperus laevigatus and a scattering of small open pools. While C. laevigatus is by far the dominant wetland plant species, four bulrush (Typha) vents were also noted. Keppel et al., 2016 note that two relict species – Fimbristylis sieberiana (fringe rush) and Schoenoplectus subulatus (club rush) are also present at Reedy Springs, although in very limited distribution. Faunal diversity (macroinvertebrates) is low. The springs drain into a deeply incised gully which flows some distance to the east.

Reedy Springs also showed severe cattle impacts and several carcasses were noted, particularly in the vicinity of the Typha springs.

Reedy Springs marked the conclusion of spring visits by the FOMS group. This was a particularly interesting trip to some unfamiliar springs and FOMS thanks the pastoral lessees at Moolawatana and Murnpeowie for their cooperation. Special thanks are also due to FOMS member Kaaren Hawkes for her generous contribution towards costs incurred on the trip and Darren Niejalke for his advice and assistance with trip planning.

Beatrice and Bopeechee Springs, both on Finniss Springs, were subject to a burning trial in May 2016, a joint exercise involving the Arabana, FOMS and Department for Environment and Water. The primary intention was to assess the effects of fire on the dense reeds (Phragmites) at Bopeechee and bulrushes (Typha) at Beatrice. Both springs were inspected by FOMS volunteers and the Arabana Ranger group in early June and late August 2020.

At Beatrice Spring, burning was only partially effective because of the high moisture content of the vegetation. There is now a healthy stand of Typha at Beatrice but horses have had a severe impact upon the other wetland vegetation. At Bopeechee Spring, the May 2016 burn was very effective in reducing the reeds to water/ ground level. Observations soon after May 2016 showed that the reeds were regrowing quite prolifically but subsequently horses had a severe impact, grazing and pugging the reed regrowth. These impacts have effectively negated the value of the burning trial but regular observations at the springs have continued.

By August 2020 the intensity of horse activity at Bopeechee and Beatrice appeared to have diminished – probably associated with recent rains. It is interesting to note that it is the bore-drain sedge, Cyperus laevigatus, which is now colonising much of the wetland area, with reed (Phragmites) regrowth much reduced. At other springs with Phragmites protected after decades of stock pressure, proliferation of Phragmites has been the main response. While more information is needed, there is a suggestion at Bopeechee that C. laevigatus might have a role as a primary coloniser after stock / horse pressure is reduced.

FOMS and the Arabana Ranger team have discussed management options. An initial suggestion for management of the horse impacts was to install individual fencing around Beatrice Spring and Bopeechee Spring but current thinking favours fencing of a considerably larger area, coupled with measures to exclude horses.